CLINICAL PHARMACOLOGY
Mechanism of Action
The mechanism of action of THALOMID is not fully understood. THALOMID possesses immunomodulatory, antiinflammatory and antiangiogenic properties. Available data from in vitro studies and clinical trials suggest that the immunologic effects of this compound can vary substantially under different conditions, but may be related to suppression of excessive tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) production and down-modulation of selected cell surface adhesion molecules involved in leukocyte migration. For example, administration of thalidomide has been reported to decrease circulating levels of TNF-α in patients with erythema nodosum leprosum (ENL); however, it has also been shown to increase plasma TNF-α levels in HIV-seropositive patients. Other anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory properties of thalidomide may include suppression of macrophage involvement in prostaglandin synthesis, and modulation of interleukin-10 and interleukin-12 production by peripheral blood mononuclear cells. Thalidomide treatment of multiple myeloma patients is accompanied by an increase in the number of circulating natural killer cells, and an increase in plasma levels of interleukin-2 and interferon-gamma (T cell-derived cytokines associated with cytotoxic activity). Thalidomide was found to inhibit angiogenesis in a human umbilical artery explant model in vitro. The cellular processes of angiogenesis inhibited by thalidomide may include the proliferation of endothelial cells.
Pharmacokinetics
Absorption
Absorption of THALOMID is slow after oral administration. The maximum plasma concentrations are reached approximately 2-5 hours after administration. The absolute bioavailability of thalidomide from thalidomide capsules has not yet been characterized in human subjects due to its poor aqueous solubility. Based on the 14C-radiolabel thalidomide study in human, greater than 90% of the total radioactivity is recovered in urine suggesting good oral absorption. While the extent of absorption (as measured by area under the curve [AUC]) is proportional to dose in healthy subjects, the observed peak concentration (Cmax) increased in a less than proportional manner (see Table 5 below). This lack of Cmax dose proportionality, coupled with the observed increase in Tmax values, suggests that the poor solubility of thalidomide in aqueous media may be hindering the rate of absorption.
Table 5: Pharmacokinetic Parameter Values for THALOMID Mean (%CV)
Population/ Single Dose
|
AUC0-∞
µg·hr/mL
|
Cmax
µg/mL
|
Tmax
(hrs)
|
Half‑life
(hrs)
|
Healthy Subjects (n=14) |
|
|
|
|
50 mg |
4.9 (16%) |
0.62 (52%) |
2.9 (66%) |
5.52 (37%) |
200 mg |
18.9 (17%) |
1.76 (30%) |
3.5 (57%) |
5.53 (25%) |
400 mg |
36.4 (26%) |
2.82 (28%) |
4.3 (37%) |
7.29 (36%) |
Patients with Hansen’s Disease (n=6) |
|
|
|
|
400 mg |
46.4 (44.1%) |
3.44 (52.6%) |
5.7 (27%) |
6.86 (17%) |
Coadministration of THALOMID® (thalidomide) with a high-fat meal causes minor (<10%) changes in the observed AUC and Cmax values; however, it causes an increase in Tmax to approximately 6 hours.
Distribution
In human plasma, the geometric mean plasma protein binding was 55% and 66%, respectively, for (+)-(R)- and (-)-(S)-thalidomide. In a pharmacokinetic study of thalidomide in HIV-seropositive adult male subjects receiving thalidomide 100 mg/day, thalidomide was detectable in the semen.
Metabolism
In a 14C-radiolabel ADME study in humans, unchanged drug is the predominant circulating component. Thalidomide is not a substrate of the cytochrome P450 system. At therapeutic concentrations, thalidomide is not an inhibitor or inducer of human cytochrome P450 enzymes in vitro. Pharmacokinetic drug-drug interactions with substrates, inhibitors or inducers of CYP450 are not anticipated.
Elimination
The mean elimination half-life of thalidomide in plasma following single oral doses between 50 mg and 400 mg was 5.5 to 7.3 hours. Following a single 400 mg oral dose of radiolabeled thalidomide, the total mean recovery was 93.6% of the administered dose by Day 8. The majority of the radioactive dose was excreted within 48 hours following dose administration. In humans, 14C-thalidomide is primarily excreted in urine (91.9% of the radioactive dose) mainly as hydrolytic metabolites while fecal excretion is minor (<2% of the dose). Unchanged thalidomide is not eliminated by the kidney to a notable degree (<3.5% of the dose).
Effects of Weight
There is a linear relationship between body weight and estimated thalidomide clearance. In MM patients with body weight from 47-133 kg, thalidomide clearance ranged from approximately 6-12 L/h, representing an increase in thalidomide clearance of 0.605 L/h per 10 kg body weight increase.
Effects of Age, Gender and Race
Analysis of the data from pharmacokinetic studies in healthy volunteers and patients with Hansen’s disease ranging in age from 20 to 69 years does not reveal any age-related changes.
While a comparative trial of the effects of gender on thalidomide pharmacokinetics has not been conducted, examination of the data for thalidomide does not reveal any significant gender differences in pharmacokinetic parameter values.
Pharmacokinetic differences due to race have not been studied.
Pharmacokinetic Data in Special Populations
HIV-seropositive Subjects: There is no apparent significant difference in measured pharmacokinetic parameter values between healthy human subjects and HIV-seropositive subjects following single-dose administration of THALOMID Capsules.
Patients with Hansen’s Disease: Analysis of data from a small study in Hansen’s patients suggests that these patients, relative to healthy subjects, may have an increased bioavailability of THALOMID. The increase is reflected both in an increased area under the curve and in increased peak plasma levels. The clinical significance of this increase is unknown.
Pediatric: No pharmacokinetic data are available in subjects below the age of 18 years.
NONCLINICAL TOXICOLOGY
Carcinogenesis, Mutagenesis, Impairment of Fertility
Two-year carcinogenicity studies were conducted in male and female rats and mice. No compound-related tumorigenic effects were observed at the highest dose levels of 3,000 mg/kg/day to male and female mice (38-fold greater than the highest recommended daily human dose of 400 mg based upon body surface area [BSA]), 3,000 mg/kg/day to female rats (75-fold the maximum human dose based upon BSA), and 300 mg/kg/day to male rats (7.5-fold the maximum human dose based upon BSA).
Thalidomide was neither mutagenic nor genotoxic in the following assays: the Ames bacterial (S. typhimurium and E. coli) reverse mutation assay, a Chinese hamster ovary cell (AS52/XPRT) forward mutation assay, and an in vivo mouse micronucleus test.
Fertility studies were conducted in male and female rabbits; no compound-related effects in mating and fertility indices were observed at any oral thalidomide dose level including the highest of 100 mg/kg/day to female rabbits and 500 mg/kg/day to male rabbits (approximately 5- and 25-fold the maximum human dose, respectively, based upon BSA). Testicular pathological and histopathological effects (classified as slight) were seen in male rabbits at dose levels ≥30 mg/kg/day (approximately 1.5-fold the maximum human dose based upon BSA).
|