CLINICAL PHARMACOLOGY
Mechanism of Action
Metformin is an antihyperglycemic agent which improves glucose tolerance in patients with type 2 diabetes, lowering both basal and postprandial plasma glucose. Its pharmacologic mechanisms of action are different from other classes of oral antihyperglycemic agents. Metformin decreases hepatic glucose production, decreases intestinal absorption of glucose, and improves insulin sensitivity by increasing peripheral glucose uptake and utilization. Unlike sulfonylureas, metformin does not produce hypoglycemia in either patients with type 2 diabetes or normal subjects (except in special circumstances, see
PRECAUTIONS) and does not cause hyperinsulinemia. With metformin therapy, insulin secretion remains unchanged while fasting insulin levels and day-long plasma insulin response may actually decrease.
Pharmacokinetics
Absorption and Bioavailability
The absolute bioavailability of a Metformin HCl 500 mg tablet given under fasting conditions is approximately 50% to 60%. Studies using single oral doses of Metformin HCl 500 mg to 1500 mg, and 850 mg to 2550 mg, indicate that there is a lack of dose proportionality with increasing doses, which is due to decreased absorption rather than an alteration in elimination. Food decreases the extent of and slightly delays the absorption of metformin, as shown by approximately a 40% lower mean peak plasma concentration (Cmax), a 25% lower area under the plasma concentration versus time curve (AUC), and a 35 minute prolongation of time to peak plasma concentration (Tmax) following administration of a single 850 mg tablet of metformin with food, compared to the same tablet strength administered fasting. The clinical relevance of these decreases is unknown.
Distribution
The apparent volume of distribution (V/F) of metformin following single oral doses of Metformin HCl 850 mg averaged 654 ± 358 L. Metformin is negligibly bound to plasma proteins, in contrast to sulfonylureas, which are more than 90% protein bound. Metformin partitions into erythrocytes, most likely as a function of time. At usual clinical doses and dosing schedules of Metformin HCl, steady-state plasma concentrations of metformin are reached within 24 to 48 hours and are generally <1 mcg/mL. During controlled clinical trials of Metformin HCl, maximum metformin plasma levels did not exceed 5 mcg/mL, even at maximum doses.
Metabolism and Elimination
Intravenous single-dose studies in normal subjects demonstrate that metformin is excreted unchanged in the urine and does not undergo hepatic metabolism (no metabolites have been identified in humans) nor biliary excretion. Renal clearance (see Table 1) is approximately 3.5 times greater than creatinine clearance, which indicates that tubular secretion is the major route of metformin elimination. Following oral administration, approximately 90% of the absorbed drug is eliminated via the renal route within the first 24 hours, with a plasma elimination half-life of approximately 6.2 hours. In blood, the elimination half-life is approximately 17.6 hours, suggesting that the erythrocyte mass may be a compartment of distribution.
Special Populations
Patients with Type 2 Diabetes
In the presence of normal renal function, there are no differences between single- or multiple-dose pharmacokinetics of metformin between patients with type 2 diabetes and normal subjects (see Table 1), nor is there any accumulation of metformin in either group at usual clinical doses.
Renal Insufficiency
In patients with decreased renal function (based on measured creatinine clearance), the plasma and blood half-life of metformin is prolonged and the renal clearance is decreased in proportion to the decrease in creatinine clearance (see Table 1; also see
WARNINGS).
Hepatic Insufficiency
No pharmacokinetic studies of metformin have been conducted in patients with hepatic insufficiency.
Geriatrics
Limited data from controlled pharmacokinetic studies of Metformin HCl in healthy elderly subjects suggest that total plasma clearance of metformin is decreased, the half-life is prolonged, and Cmax is increased, compared to healthy young subjects. From these data, it appears that the change in metformin pharmacokinetics with aging is primarily accounted for by a change in renal function (see Table 1). Metformin HCl Tablets treatment should not be initiated in patients ≥80 years of age unless measurement of creatinine clearance demonstrates that renal function is not reduced (see
WARNINGS
and
DOSAGE AND ADMINISTRATION).
Table 1: Select Mean (±S.D.) Metformin Pharmacokinetic Parameters Following Single
or Multiple Oral Doses of Metformin HCl
Subject Groups: Metformin HCl dose
a
(number of subjects)
|
C
max
b
(mcg/mL)
|
T
max
c
(hrs)
|
Renal Clearance
(mL/min)
|
Healthy, nondiabetic adults:
|
|
|
|
500 mg single dose (24) |
1.03 (±0.33) |
2.75 (±0.81) |
600 (±132) |
850 mg single dose (74) d
|
1.60 (±0.38) |
2.64 (±0.82) |
552 (±139) |
850 mg three times daily for 19 doses e (9) |
2.01 (±0.42) |
1.79 (±0.94) |
642 (±173) |
Adults with type 2 diabetes:
|
|
|
|
850 mg single dose (23) |
1.48 (±0.5) |
3.32 (±1.08) |
491 (±138) |
850 mg three times daily for 19 doses e (9) |
1.90 (±0.62) |
2.01 (±1.22) |
550 (±160) |
Elderly
f
, healthy nondiabetic adults:
|
|
|
|
850 mg single dose (12) |
2.45 (±0.70) |
2.71 (±1.05) |
412 (±98) |
Renal-impaired adults:
|
|
|
|
850 mg single dose
|
|
|
|
Mild (CLcr
g 61 to 90 mL/min) (5) |
1.86 (±0.52) |
3.20 (±0.45) |
384 (±122) |
Moderate (CLcr 31 to 60 mL/min) (4) |
4.12 (±1.83) |
3.75 (±0.50) |
108 (±57) |
Severe (CLcr 10 to 30 mL/min) (6) |
3.93 (±0.92) |
4.01 (±1.10) |
130 (±90) |
a- All doses given fasting except the first 18 doses of the multiple dose studies
b- Peak plasma concentration
c- Time to peak plasma concentration
d- Combined results (average means) of five studies: mean age 32 years (range 23 to 59 years)
e- Kinetic study done following dose 19, given fasting
f- Elderly subjects, mean age 71 years (range 65 to 81 years)
g- CLcr = creatinine clearance normalized to body surface area of 1.73 m2
Pediatrics
After administration of a single oral Metformin HCl 500 mg tablet with food, geometric mean metformin Cmax and AUC differed less than 5% between pediatric type 2 diabetic patients (12 to 16 years of age) and gender- and weight-matched healthy adults (20 to 45 years of age), all with normal renal function.
Gender
Metformin pharmacokinetic parameters did not differ significantly between normal subjects and patients with type 2 diabetes when analyzed according to gender (males = 19, females = 16). Similarly, in controlled clinical studies in patients with type 2 diabetes, the antihyperglycemic effect of Metformin HCl was comparable in males and females.
Race
No studies of metformin pharmacokinetic parameters according to race have been performed. In controlled clinical studies of Metformin HCl in patients with type 2 diabetes, the antihyperglycemic effect was comparable in whites (n=249), blacks (n=51), and Hispanics (n=24).
Clinical Studies
Metformin Hydrochloride
In a double-blind, placebo-controlled, multicenter U.S. clinical trial involving obese patients with type 2 diabetes whose hyperglycemia was not adequately controlled with dietary management alone (baseline fasting plasma glucose [FPG] of approximately 240 mg/dL), treatment with Metformin HCl (up to 2550 mg/day) for 29 weeks resulted in significant mean net reductions in fasting and postprandial plasma glucose (PPG) and hemoglobin A1c (HbA1c) of 59 mg/dL, 83 mg/dL, and 1.8%, respectively, compared to the placebo group (see Table 2).
Table 2: Metformin HCl vs Placebo Summary of Mean Changes from Baseline* in
Fasting Plasma Glucose, HbA
1c
, and Body Weight, at Final Visit (29-week study)
|
Metformin HCl
(n=141)
|
Placebo
(n=145)
|
p-Value
|
FPG (mg/dL)
|
|
|
|
Baseline |
241.5 |
237.7 |
NS** |
Change at FINAL VISIT |
-53.0 |
6.3 |
0.001 |
Hemoglobin A
1c
(%)
|
|
|
|
Baseline |
8.4 |
8.2 |
NS** |
Change at FINAL VISIT |
-1.4 |
0.4 |
0.001 |
Body Weight (lbs)
|
|
|
|
Baseline |
201.0 |
206.0 |
NS** |
Change at FINAL VISIT |
-1.4 |
-2.4 |
NS** |
* All patients on diet therapy at Baseline **Not statistically significant
A 29-week, double-blind, placebo-controlled study of Metformin HCl and glyburide, alone and in combination, was conducted in obese patients with type 2 diabetes who had failed to achieve adequate glycemic control while on maximum doses of glyburide (baseline FPG of approximately 250 mg/dL) (see Table 3). Patients randomized to the combination arm started therapy with Metformin HCl 500 mg and glyburide 20 mg. At the end of each week of the first four weeks of the trial, these patients had their dosages of Metformin HCl increased by 500 mg if they had failed to reach target fasting plasma glucose. After week four, such dosage adjustments were made monthly, although no patient was allowed to exceed Metformin HCl 2500 mg. Patients in the Metformin HCl only arm (metformin plus placebo) followed the same titration schedule. At the end of the trial, approximately 70% of the patients in the combination group were taking Metformin HCl 2000 mg/glyburide 20 mg or Metformin HCl 2500 mg/glyburide 20 mg. Patients randomized to continue on glyburide experienced worsening of glycemic control, with mean increases in FPG, PPG, and HbA1c of 14 mg/dL, 3 mg/dL, and 0.2%, respectively. In contrast, those randomized to Metformin HCl (up to 2500 mg/day) experienced a slight improvement, with mean reductions in FPG, PPG, and HbA1c of 1 mg/dL, 6 mg/dL, and 0.4%, respectively. The combination of Metformin HCl and glyburide was effective in reducing FPG, PPG, and HbA1c levels by 63 mg/dL, 65 mg/dL, and 1.7%, respectively. Compared to results of glyburide treatment alone, the net differences with combination treatment were –77 mg/dL, – 68 mg/dL, and –1.9%, respectively (see Table 3).
Table 3: Combined Metformin HCl/Glyburide (Comb) vs Glyburide (Glyb) or
Metformin HCl (Met) Monotherapy: Summary of Mean Changes from
Baseline* in Fasting Plasma Glucose, HbA
1c
, and Body Weight, at Final Visit
(29-week study)
|
|
|
|
p=Values
|
|
Comb
(n=213)
|
Glyb
(n=209)
|
Met
(n=210)
|
Glyb vs Comb
|
Met vs Comb
|
Met vs Glyb
|
Fasting Plasma
Glucose (mg/dL)
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Baseline |
250.5 |
247.5 |
253.9 |
NS** |
NS** |
NS** |
Change at FINAL VISIT |
-63.5 |
13.7 |
-0.9 |
0.001 |
0.001 |
0.025 |
Hemoglobin
A
1c
(%)
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Baseline |
8.8 |
8.5 |
8.9 |
NS** |
NS** |
0.007 |
Change at FINAL VISIT |
-1.7 |
0.2 |
-0.4 |
0.001 |
0.001 |
0.001 |
Body Weight
(lbs)
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Baseline |
202.2 |
203.0 |
204.0 |
NS** |
NS** |
NS** |
Change at FINAL VISIT |
0.9 |
-0.7 |
-8.4 |
0.011 |
0.001 |
0.001 |
*All patients on glyburide, 20 mg/day at Baseline
** Not statistically significant
The magnitude of the decline in fasting blood glucose concentration following the institution of - Metformin HCl Tablets therapy was proportional to the level of fasting hyperglycemia. Patients with type 2 diabetes with higher fasting glucose concentrations experienced greater declines in plasma glucose and glycosylated hemoglobin.
In clinical studies, Metformin HCl, alone or in combination with a sulfonylurea, lowered mean fasting serum triglycerides, total cholesterol, and LDL cholesterol levels and had no adverse effects on other lipid levels (see Table 4).
Table 4: Summary of Mean Percent Change From Baseline of Major Serum Lipid
Variables at Final Visit (29-week studies)
|
Metformin HCl vs Placebo
|
Combined Metformin HCl /Glyburide vs Monotherapy
|
|
Metformin HCl
(n=141)
|
Placebo
(n=145)
|
Metformin HCl
(n=210)
|
Metformin HCl /Glyburide
(n=213)
|
Glyburide
(n=209)
|
Total Cholesterol
(mg/dL)
Baseline Mean % Change at FINAL VISIT |
211.0 -5% |
212.3 1% |
213.1 -2% |
215.6 -4% |
219.6 1% |
Total Triglycerides (mg/dL)
Baseline Mean % Change at FINAL VISIT |
236.1 -16% |
203.5 1% |
242.5 -3% |
215.0 -8% |
266.1 4% |
LDL-Cholesterol (mg/dL)
Baseline
Mean % Change at FINAL VISIT |
135.4 -8% |
138.5 1% |
134.3 -4% |
136.0 -6% |
137.5 3% |
HDL-Cholesterol (mg/dL)
Baseline
Mean % Change at FINAL VISIT |
39.0 2% |
40.5 -1% |
37.2 5% |
39.0 3% |
37.0 1% |
In contrast to sulfonylureas, body weight of individuals on Metformin HCl tended to remain stable or even decrease somewhat (see Tables 2 and 3).
A 24-week, double-blind, placebo-controlled study of Metformin HCl plus insulin versus insulin plus placebo was conducted in patients with type 2 diabetes who failed to achieve adequate glycemic control on insulin alone (see Table 5). Patients randomized to receive Metformin HCl plus insulin achieved a reduction in HbA1c of 2.10%, compared to a 1.56% reduction in HbA1c achieved by insulin plus placebo. The improvement in glycemic control was achieved at the final study visit with 16% less insulin, 93.0 U/day vs 110.6 U/day, Metformin HCl plus insulin versus insulin plus placebo, respectively, p=0.04.
Table 5: Combined Metformin HCl /Insulin vs Placebo/Insulin Summary of Mean
Changes from Baseline in HbA
1c
and Daily Insulin Dos
e
|
Metformin HCl /Insulin
(n=26)
|
Placebo/ Insulin
(n=28)
|
Treatment Difference Mean ±SE
|
Hemoglobin A
1c
(%)
Baseline Change at FINAL VISIT |
8.95 -2.10 |
9.32 -1.56 |
-0.54±0.43a
|
Insulin Dose (U/day)
Baseline Change at FINAL VISIT |
93.12 -0.15 |
94.64 15.93 |
-16.08±7.77b
|
a Statistically significant using analysis of covariance with baseline as covariate (p=0.04)
Not significant using analysis of variance (values shown in table)
b Statistically significant for insulin (p=0.04)
A second double-blind, placebo-controlled study (n=51), with 16 weeks of randomized treatment, demonstrated that in patients with type 2 diabetes controlled on insulin for 8 weeks with an average HbA1c of 7.46 ± 0.97%, the addition of Metformin HCl maintained similar glycemic control (HbA1c 7.15 ± 0.61 versus 6.97 ± 0.62 for Metformin HCl plus insulin and placebo plus insulin, respectively) with 19% less insulin versus baseline (reduction of 23.68 ± 30.22 versus an increase of 0.43 ± 25.20 units for Metformin HCl plus insulin and placebo plus insulin, p<0.01). In addition, this study demonstrated that the combination of Metformin HCl plus insulin resulted in reduction in body weight of 3.11 ± 4.30 lbs, compared to an increase of 1.30 ± 6.08 lbs for placebo plus insulin, p=0.01.
A 24-week, double-blind, randomized study of Metformin HCl Tablets, USP taken twice daily (with breakfast and evening meal), was conducted in patients with type 2 diabetes who had been treated with Metformin HCl 500 mg twice daily for at least 8 weeks prior to study entry.
The Metformin HCl dose had not necessarily been titrated to achieve a specific level of glycemic control prior to study entry. Patients qualified for the study if HbA1c was ≤ 8.5% and FPG was ≤200 mg/dL. Changes in glycemic control and body weight are shown in Table 6.
Table 6: Summary of Mean Changes from Baseline* in HbA
1c
, Fasting Plasma Glucose,
and Body Weight at Week 12 and at Final Visit (24-week study)
|
Metformin HCl 500 mg Twice Daily
|
Hemoglobin A
1c
(%)
Baseline Change at 12 weeks (95% CI) Change at FINAL VISIT (95% CI) |
(n=67)
7.06 0.14 (-0.03, 0.31) 0.14a
(-0.04, 0.31) |
FPG (mg/dL)
Baseline Change at 12 weeks (95% CI) Change at FINAL VISIT (95% CI) |
(n=69)
127.2 12.9 (6.5, 19.4) 14.0 (7.0, 21.0) |
Body Weight (lbs)
Baseline Change at 12 weeks (95% CI) Change at FINAL VISIT (95% CI) |
(n=71)
210.3 0.4 (-0.4, 1.5) 0.9 (-0.4, 2.2) |
*All patients on Metformin HCl 500 mg twice daily at Baseline
a n=68
Changes in lipid parameters in the previously described study of Metformin HCl are shown in Table 7.
Table 7: Summary of Mean Percent Changes from Baseline* in Major Lipid Variables
at Final Visit (24-week study)
|
Metformin HCl 500 mg Twice Daily
|
Total Cholesterol (mg/dL)
Baseline Mean % Change at FINAL VISIT |
(n=68)
199.0 0.1% |
Total Triglycerides (mg/dL)
Baseline Mean % Change at FINAL VISIT |
(n=68)
178.0 6.3% |
LDL-Cholesterol (mg/dL)
Baseline Mean % Change at FINAL VISIT |
(n=68)
122.1 -1.3% |
HDL-Cholesterol (mg/dL)
Baseline Mean % Change at FINAL VISIT |
(n=68)
41.9 4.8% |
* All patients on Metformin HCl 500 mg twice daily at Baseline
Pediatric Clinical Studies
In a double-blind, placebo-controlled study in pediatric patients aged 10 to 16 years with type 2 diabetes (mean FPG 182.2 mg/dL), treatment with Metformin HCl (up to 2000 mg/day) for up to 16 weeks (mean duration of treatment 11 weeks) resulted in a significant mean net reduction in FPG of 64.3 mg/dL, compared with placebo (see Table 8).
Table 8: Metformin HCl vs Placebo (Pediatrics
a
) Summary of Mean Changes from
Baseline* in Plasma Glucose and Body Weight at Final Visit
|
Metformin HCl
|
Placebo
|
p-Value
|
FPG (mg/dL)
Baseline Change at FINAL VISIT |
(n=37)
162.4 -42.9 |
(n=36)
192.3 21.4 |
<0.001 |
Body Weight (lbs)
Baseline Change at FINAL VISIT |
(n=39)
205.3 -3.3 |
(n=38)
189.0 -2.0 |
NS** |
a Pediatric patients mean age 13.8 years (range 10 to 16 years)
* All patients on diet therapy at Baseline
**Not statistically significant
|